Notes
1 See Julie Battilana, Matthew Lee, John Walker, and Cheryl Dorsey, “In Search of the Hybrid Ideal,” Stanford Social Innovation Review, Summer 2012.
2 The decline in governmental support for nonprofits is described in J.J. McMurtry and François Brouard, “Social Enterprises in Canada: An Introduction,” and in Peter R. Elson, Peter Hall, Sarah Leeson-Klym, Darcy Penner, and Jill Andres, “Social Enterprises in the Canadian West,” Canadian Journal of Nonprofit and Social Economy Research, vol. 6, no. 1, 2015.
3 See Matt Onek, “Philanthropic Pioneers: Foundations and the Rise of Impact Investing,” Stanford Social Innovation Review, January 17, 2017; Jean Case, “Bringing the Last Decade of Impact Investing to Life: An Interactive Timeline,” The Case Foundation, November 17, 2017.
4 Our framework is based on the analysis of grant applications submitted to Enterprising Nonprofits (ENP), a major Canadian grantmaking body that supports the development of revenue-generating “social enterprise” activities within nonprofit organizations. We reviewed all applications submitted between 2000 and 2013, for a total of nearly 1,200 applications. Our analysis focused on the narrative portions of the applications where organizations detailed the proposed commercial activities and their connection to existing operations. We looked for patterns in how organizations planned to combine revenue generation with their social mission, ultimately inducing the three models described in this article. We also examined variation in the prevalence of these models over time across different types of nonprofits (i.e., community benefit, education, welfare, health, religion). See Jean-Baptiste Litrico and Marya L. Besharov, “Unpacking Variation in Hybrid Organizational Forms: Changing Models of Social Enterprise among Nonprofits, 2000-2013,” Journal of Business Ethics, 2018.
5 Indigenous Corporate Training, “Barriers to Aboriginal Employment – High Beam on Drivers’ Licenses,” November 19, 2013.
6 See Julie Battilana and Silvia Dorado, “Building Sustainable Hybrid Organizations: The Case of Commercial Microfinance Organizations,” Academy of Management Journal, vol. 53, 2010.
7 Matthew Grimes, Trenton A. Williams, and Eric Yanfei Zhao, “Anchors Aweigh: The Sources, Variety, and Challenges of Mission Drift,” Academy of Management Review, 2018. Tommaso Ramus and Antonino Vaccaro, “Stakeholders Matter: How Social Enterprises Address Mission Drift,” Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 143, no. 2, 2017. Marshall B. Jones, “The Multiple Sources of Mission Drift,” Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, vol. 36, no. 2, 2007.
8 Wendy K. Smith and Marya L. Besharov, “Bowing before Dual Gods: How Structured Flexibility Sustains Organizational Hybridity,” Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 64, no. 1, 2019.
9 Jacques Defourny, Olivier Gregoire, and Catherine Davister, “WISE Integration Social Enterprises in the European Union: An Overview of Existing Models,” EMES International Research Network, 2004. Roger Spear and Eric Bidet, “Social Enterprise for Work Integration in 12 European Countries: A Descriptive Analysis,” Annals of Public and Cooperative Economics, vol. 76, no. 2, 2005. Rosario Laratta and Sachiko Nakagawa, “Work Integration Social Enterprises for People with Disabilities in Japan,” Nonprofit Policy Forum, vol. 7, no. 4, 2016.
10 Andrea Chan, Laurie Mook, and Susanna Kislenko, “Stakeholders’ Stories of Impact: The Case of Furniture Bank,” Social Purpose Enterprises: Case Studies for Social Change, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2014.
11 See Allen R. Bromberger, “A New Type of Hybrid,” Stanford Social Innovation Review, Spring 2011.